消息

Non-Lethal Force: The Slippery Slope to War?

F. M. Lorenz


From参数,1996年秋,第52-62页。

In preparation for Operation United Shield, the US-led evacuation of UN forces from Somalia, Lieutenant General A. C. Zinni, USMC, asked his staff to pursue "less lethal" alternatives in dealing with unarmed hostile elements in Mogadishu. The intent was to use every practical and available means to deal with hostile crowds, with the goal of saving lives and reducing confrontation.

As a result of these efforts, the I Marine Expeditionary Force became a test bed for the employment of new technology designed to fill the gap between verbal warnings and deadly force. In January 1995 the deployment of Combined Task Force United Shield fueled the debate in the United States over the need for less-lethal weapons. Some feared that the Marines, our premier amphibious combat assault force, would be sending the message that they were too squeamish to hurt even their enemies.[1] Others were concerned that the proliferation of less-lethal technologies would inadvertently bridge the gap between peace and war, leading us down the "slippery slope" to deadly force (and war) with little forethought and no debate.[2] Did Operation United Shield give birth to a new element of national power, in addition to the traditional elements of political, diplomatic, and military? Should the United States continue to develop less-lethal weapons as an instrument of national policy? What lessons were learned from the deployment of less-lethal weapons in Operation United Shield? This article will attempt to answer these questions based upon the experience of the I Marine Expeditionary Force.

背景

恢复希望的行动是恢复索马里命令的国际努力,并确保安全向饥饿的人口提供救济用品,并于1992年12月开始充满乐观。1993年5月,该行动的领导层移交给了联合国,联合国采取了更加雄心勃勃的国家建设和裁军计划,并具有较低的能力。[3]到1994年底,有130多名维和人员去世,试图执行联合国授权,国际社会花费了超过200亿美元。联合国向索马里的任务被认为是失败的,联合国下令在1995年3月底之前撤离剩下的维和人员。1994年后期,在摩加迪沙市进行了战斗,对离职的维持者造成了更大的危险,联合国称为为了我们的协助,为撤回提供安全保障。美国中央司令部指挥的I Restore Hope的指挥部要素的核心核心的I海军远征部队返回索马里,并指挥支持撤军的美军。

As preparations began for the operation, it became clear that unarmed hostile elements could pose a substantial threat to US forces. During the final days of the deployment, large bands of looters and thieves would be competing for the booty left behind by the UN. Although Marines regularly train in crowd control, this type of training is only one part of an intense training cycle that must occur before deployment. The I MEF took the lead in obtaining the best available equipment that could protect lives and reduce the possibility of confrontation with unarmed groups.

使用较少致命的武器是一个快速发展的军事行动地区,术语和学说仍然存在很多困惑。国防部目前正在使用非致命术语。在联合屏蔽期间,术语“非致命”,“致命较少”和“杀死率较小”的术语被互换使用。[4]这些材料将在本文的平衡中称为“非致命”,以符合当前的DOD术语。一些作者包括信息战,电子战,心理操作以及“增强制裁”,例如中断的电网,运输,信用和计算机系统,作为非致命的战争形式。这不是本文的目的。[5]在这里,该概念仅限于开发和使用的物资,以减少或消除战术或操作水平上的伤亡。上面引用的目标属于不同的矩阵,它以战略性而不是战术为重要的目标。

由于时间的限制,可用性的非致命系统选择的关键因素之一就是可用性。几乎所有的弹药和武器都必须有一个为期两周的保证交货日期,以确保在美军需要时在索马里提供材料。数量是另一个主要问题,因为许多非致命设备的制造商和分销商都无法维持大量库存。在选择和购买基本设备和弹药时发现了两个其他因素。第一个是该领域的表现,第二个是培训以前没有工作经验的个人所需的时间。

The final critical factor in selection of non-lethal systems was the need to be able to deliver the munitions using the organic weapon systems in the Marine rifle company's table of equipment. Learning new delivery systems would require additional training time and increase the combat load of the individual Marine. The decision was to require that new material could be fired from the M203, a combination of grenade launcher and rifle, and the standard 12-gauge shotgun. The M203 grenade launching system was compatible with the 37mm non-lethal munitions procured for Operation United Shield and was the preferred delivery system for these munitions. The M203 includes the M-16 and can provide lethality promptly when required. The infantry's familiarity with the M203 contributed to accuracy in non-lethal systems as well. The 12-gauge shotgun also provides versatility, and can easily be employed as a lethal weapon by quick selection of munitions.

The reason for the procurement of non-lethal technologies was to fill the gap between verbal warnings and deadly force when dealing with unarmed hostile elements. Historically, the accomplishment of military objectives has required killing the enemy. Military force has been developed over the centuries to meet and exceed the lethality of the force available to the adversary. The intensity of the force was never at issue, since any force was deadly and was judged only on the outcomes: death or relative levels of destruction required to achieve an objective. But the nature and complexity of military operations is changing. Soldiers and Marines today are much more likely to encounter unarmed hostile elements in peacekeeping missions and other armed interventions.

在传统的陆军学说中,“低端”能力(如警告和防暴形态)与常规使用致命力量之间存在差距。对于许多军事规划人员来说,这产生了一种模型,在该模型中,将部队视为一个拨动开关:它是打开或关闭的。相对较新的可靠,最先进的非致命武器的可用性,这些武器破坏,削弱或使对手违抗指挥官意志的能力创造了几年前未知的机会。这些非致命的替代方案在涉及支持和平行动或人道主义计划的行动中可能具有深远的意义。

批准非致命系统

在该领域获得和使用I MEF的非致命系统可以在华盛顿获得详细的审查和正式批准之前,必须在华盛顿获得。所有系统都需要进行安全审查,海军陆战队系统司令部于1月14日发布了有限的安全释放以及采购授权。在使用系统之前,必须对每个系统遵守国际法进行审查。[6]审查是由海军法官倡导者对获得初步批准的系统的审查。法官倡导者总理确定,该系统的就业将与武装冲突定律一致,并且他们的使用不会违反美国条约义务。

与非致命系统有关的国防部指令草案规定了其就业政策。[7]这些武器的开发和分期计划的监督权归属于高级指导委员会。该委员会由国防部收购和技术副部长办公室以及国防部专业副部长办公室进行特殊行动和低强度冲突的办公室。国防部副部门的政策办公室可确保使用非致命武器的使用得到适当考虑。国防部代表在联合盾牌部署的非致命武器的快速批准过程中发挥了重要作用。但是,有人担心联合盾牌人员认为,国防部代表从现场撤离太远,无法正确评估对非致命武器的需求。例如,在批准过程中使用“粘泡沫”的谨慎似乎集中在训练方面和窒息示威者的危险上。一旦项目获得批准,这些问题就会更恰当地留给现场指挥官。

As part of the preparation for Operation United Shield, the following non-lethal systems were acquired, approved, and deployed: 40mm systems with five types of rounds, 12-gauge systems with three types of rounds, pepper sprays, stinger grenades, "flash bangs," and two types of foam, sticky and aqueous.[8] These systems should be distinguished from Riot Control Agent (CS gas), which has been in the US inventory for years, and is used routinely during training. The systems deployed in United Shield were a small sample of a range of materiel sometimes classified as non-lethal.

参与规则

参与规则(ROE) for Operation United Shield were approved and issued by the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 4 February 1995. Most provisions of the ROE were unclassified, including the part concerning unarmed crowds or unarmed hostile elements.[9] This provision was based on the principle of a graduated response, using the minimum force necessary to respond to the threat. The principles of necessity and proportionality apply, and further amplification should not be required.

The entire text of the ROE for United Shield had been delayed more than two weeks awaiting final approval of the special ROE for non-lethal force. When the final copy of the ROE was received, just before the landings, it contained arbitrary restrictions on the use of certain "crowd control" devices. The restrictions were based on the assumption that there is a clear-cut distinction between the use of deadly force and all other means of force. This approach is not consistent with the practice in the civilian law enforcement field, where the use of force is viewed as a continuum of action rather than as a set of distinct alternatives. The materiel developed and approved for use was based on just such a continuum, which was intended to provide a range of practical choices to troops on the ground in contact with potentially hostile "civilians" (see Figure 1). Despite the ROE restrictions, most of the non-lethal means could be properly employed in the sequence described in Figure 1, in the manner in which the Marines had been trained.

宣传和媒体关系

工作队人员在手术期间监视了媒体报告,大多数人对任务无济于事。ReportsReports2月16日,“五角大楼官员”提供了有关已批准该行动的非致命手段的详细信息。甚至描述了屏障泡沫的预期长度,宽度和深度。也许“官员”不知道索马里人遵循新闻,并且具有击败障碍的非凡能力。这也使工作队处于不利地位,因为世界正在急切地等待“美国武装部队第一次大规模雇用非致命武器”。通过描述手段的清单,但没有限制,“官方”可能提出了期望工作队在登陆后不久很快就会轻易固定敌对人群的期望。

尽管该工作队确实提供了各种旨在挽救生命并减少对抗的暴力行为的项目,但媒体报告有时将重点放在新技术上,以排除其他能力。ReportsReports宣传并未提到这些系统仅用于控制无武装的人群,而当后者是合理的时候,它们永远不会被用作致命力量的替代。士兵和海军陆战队总是有权和责任捍卫自己和单位。这一点通常在专注于故事的轰动性方面的记者中丢失了。例如,在美国的一些晚间新闻播放了幽灵克星电影,显示了比尔·默里(Bill Murray)在他们的非致命措施的报告中被“史莱姆”固定在“史莱姆”中。ReportsReports这种覆盖范围倾向于在不解释其局限性的情况下引起人们对新技术的关注。

培训和就业

所有部署的系统都是仅在可用的时间和船上空间的情况下进行广泛培训的主题。强化培训得到了很好的接受和热情的支持。高信心水平至关重要,原因有两个。首先,摩加迪沙的局势可能会迅速变成大规模的民间干扰,这些部队从未遇到过。其次,就业的基本概念比技术本身更为关键,需要在压力大的情况下进行快速决策。

The main landings in United Shield occurred on 28 February 1995 when over 2000 US and Italian marines came ashore to establish a secure perimeter for the withdrawal of Pakistani and Bangladeshi soldiers. The morning of 2 March saw the most critical part of the operation: the passage of lines and the abandonment of most of the airport to looters and Somali militias. The final withdrawal was conducted by amphibious vehicles in the early morning hours of 3 March. The operation was a success; all troops and equipment were withdrawn without suffering a single Task Force casualty.

Because the operation was carefully planned and executed, with advance effort in the areas of diplomatic initiative and public awareness, there were no significant problems with crowd control or rioters during United Shield. The 40mm and shotgun-delivered non-lethal means of force were not employed, and there was limited use of sticky foam and "caltrops" to supplement key barrier systems at night during the final hours of the withdrawal. The non-lethal systems will have to await another conflict to undergo a full-scale test by the US military. Nevertheless, some important lessons came of the Somali experience that will aid in future deployments.

得到教训

功能和收购

United Shield行动揭示了美国识别和部署非致命军事系统的能力的缺点。当确定对无武器敌对元素使用武力的需求时,计划必须尽早开始。每个非致命系统的选择应基于以下因素。首先,该系统是否可用,可以及时将其交付到该领域吗?其次,它是否与现有武器和培训相兼容,并且是否兼容?第三,是否有明确,明确的指导方针和ROE的工作?最后,可以有效地采用该系统来挽救生命并为任务成就做出贡献吗?

同时,服务中的其他人应处理与非致命的物资家族有关的实际问题。乐动冠军直到1994年12月,几乎没有系统,几乎没有相关的学说。需要开发系统,获得必要的法律审查,开发和测试的学说,以及足够数量的系统以与未来的工作队部署。在减少国防预算的时期,成本将成为越来越重要的因素。一个40毫米木棍的回合售价为25美元。但是,非致命技术具有与高度吹捧的“智能弹药”相同的优势。非致命系统以精确的方式提供最有效的力量,最终挽救金钱,资源和生命。联合工作队指挥官在控制手无寸铁的敌对元素方面应具有多种替代方案。

Force Continuum

美国当前使用武力的军事规则在致命武力和较少的手段之间做出了任意和不必要的区别。这种情况在为United Shield的ROE准备过程中引起了问题,当时某些非致命系统仅限于授权致命武力的情况。ROE对培训师和运营商的限制没有意义。如果士兵或海军陆战队必须等到致命的武力被授权(表明自己的生命处于危险之中),则在他可以用豆袋或橡胶警棍射击敌对之前,他或她为什么要诉诸于非致命的手段根本吗?

粘性泡沫w的就业限制ere also unreasonable. There was apparent concern in Washington that the foam would be used to suffocate a hostile subject. There was an erroneous assumption that the sticky foam would be used as an anti-personnel weapon, and visions of an agitator with his head covered with a blob of foam prevented a more careful analysis of the intended use of the foam. For Operation United Shield the substance would have proved most useful for area denial, and then only when used in conjunction with other barrier systems such as barricades or barbed wire. Spraying an individual demonstrator would be difficult--and unnecessary in light of the other non-lethal items, such as rubber baton rounds, that could be directed at individuals. By limiting sticky foam to "deadly force" situations, the ROE effectively precluded its use.

训练

和平行动和武装干预措施总的来说,其特征是使用火力和暴力。这与战时环境形成鲜明对比的是,战时环境一旦确定敌人,就会对侵略性提高侵略性。在对这些操作的培训中,必须修改传统的战时技能,例如立即射击时立即返回大量火灾。非致命的武器培训可以视为和平行动和武装干预措施培训的一部分。不过,我们需要记住,非致命系统也可以具有战时应用程序。下一个重大的冲突很容易涉及大量的平民难民或流离失所的人,而且他们可能并不总是温顺或受到军事控制。

对非致命作战的培训必须接受与战争训练相同的重点。传统的步兵策略永远不会被放弃,因为非致命策略永远不能孤立使用。凭借额外时间的奢侈,陆基培训地点,改善的学说和明智的参与规则,士兵和海军陆战队将达到高水平的使用非致命物资。

媒体和公众看法

媒体关于曼联非致命计ReportsReports划的报道对任务成就构成了潜在的威胁。揭示了可能对索马里派系有用的关键信息,公众的注意力集中在一些假定的魔法能力上。对于将来的操作,可能有必要对某些非致命系统进行分类,以避免我们的对手建立对策。无论如何,所有参与其开发和前瞻性使用的参与都应避免发布此类系统的详细规范。

采用非致命系统的命令必须制定媒体计划,以正确描述非致命力的雇用。能力演示可能很有用,但总是在常规系统的背景下。新闻稿可能会有所帮助,提出以下要点:

就业概念

尽管在联合盾牌期间,非致命系统的使用最少,但仍愿意使用该系统。在手术之前完成的现实培训表明了一些缺陷。例如,用粘性泡沫进行测试和训练表明其作为一种系统不足,无法直接针对未武装的敌对元素。喷雾涂抹器系统昂贵,脆弱,容量有限。由于可用的涂抹器数量少,因此只能喷洒少数关键的搅拌器。一旦喷洒了搅拌器,试图逮捕他就会造成其他问题 - 泡沫可能会纠缠于接近的任何美国人员。United Shield的经验表明,如果使用的话,粘性泡沫应仅限于区域否定,然后与其他障碍有关。

使用粘性泡沫作为一种区域拒绝方法可能会在索马里这样的地区提出其他问题。在摩加迪沙(Mogadishu),年轻的徒手盗贼和侵入者在夜间穿透了美国的外围,这是一个严重的问题。如果使用粘性的泡沫在夜间用来覆盖无人看管的铁丝网,那么在早晨,我们可能会发现十几个索马里青年粘在电线上,缠在一个血腥的陷阱中。从电线中删除侵入者会很困难,并且在CNN上表现不佳。如果要完全使用粘性泡沫,则需要采取经过深思熟虑的预防措施。

必须在最低水平上做出非致命期权的决定。打算使用非致命替代方案实现军事目标的行动必须认识到可能会使用它们的情况的流动性。决策周期短而压力很大,在力连续体中的行动可以朝两个方向移动。警告镜头可以随后决定雇用狙击手对敌对行为做出回应,这可能会很快返回非致命手段,以响应手无寸铁的敌对元素。这种方法与非线性战场的概念以及指挥官有意义混乱的责任一致。

最近的发展

国防部高级研究计划局(ARPA)有一个正在进行的计划,可以为非常规任务和执法开发新技术。该计划基于1994年4月的国防与正义部门之间的理解备忘录。在一个36个月的时间里,该计划将设计并展示有限的效果技术,以替代传统的军事和执法方法。这些技术将旨在“最大程度地减少人身伤害或意想不到的损害,在环境上进行良性,并在社会和法律上可以接受”。这是一项艰巨的任务,特别是鉴于在联合盾牌的非致命系统的批准过程中表现出的极端谨慎和敏感性。

ARPA正在开发许多旨在应对个人,人群,暴动和暴民控制的技术,以及“逃离重罪犯”,并在执法环境中逃离车辆。该项目中出现的许多产品都可能具有军事和平民应用。在以下领域发布了广泛的代理机构公告,以下项目是被资助的项目。

这些选择是由政府委员会与司法部,陆军培训和教义司令部,兵警察学校,海军陆战队战斗发展司令部,海军地面战争中心和USAF开发实验室的代表进行的。一些有争议的技术计划旨在遵守国防部政策。例如,激光开发计划旨在最大程度地减少通过无意或不正确使用的永久视力丧失的机会。[10]其他类型的激光系统对于现代军队绝对至关重要。它们定期用于检测,定位,范围调查和通信。

结论

United Shield行动中的经验为使用新技术来补充传统的军事力量概念提供了许多见解。正如某些人建议的那样,非致命武器并不能提供新的国家权力元素。它们只是军事力量的延伸,以填补警告和致命力量之间的空白。非致命武器永远不会替代致命武力。自卫权仍然至关重要,致命手段将始终可用。使用部队连续模型的使用比将士兵,海军陆战队或执法人员的选择降低到致命或无头武力的选择更可取。

当适当使用的情况下,非致命的武器将挽救生命并避免对抗,并且不会使我们陷入湿滑的斜坡上。仅仅通过开发和实行非致命系统来“发送错误的信息”几乎没有危险。真正的信息将来自他们在战术水平上的工作。未武装的敌对因素将通过适当的武力来满足,而不是导致暴力升级的过度反应。请记住,非致命武器仅设计用于使用徒手敌对元素。威胁可能是小规模的,例如在电线内的夜晚的小偷,或一个成熟的骚乱。威胁可能是一个井井有条的暴民,但只有受到恐惧或饥饿而激发的人也很容易成为一群人。

与雇用军队有关的基本假设保持不变。在保护我们的人员并完成任务的最佳系统中。技术很重要,但没有有效的培训就没有用。没有复杂的规则和限制,需要开发学说。我们没有诞生神奇的创造力。由于目前对非致命技术的兴趣,还可以采用一系列新工具来帮助他们完成任务,因此,由于目前对非致命技术的兴趣,可能会导致维持和平任务和其他武装干预措施的指挥官。如果适当使用,非致命武器将在面对徒手的敌对元素时加强威慑力并更好地保护我们的部队。


笔记

当前的文章是作者文章的修订版,《联合盾牌行动中的“杀死''力量较少”,发表于1995年9月的发行Marine Corps Gazette,第68-76页,©1995海军陆战队协会。本文复制的原始文章的一部分已经许可转载。

1.马丁·斯坦顿(Martin L. Stanton),“什么价格粘合泡沫?”程序,1996年1月,第1页。58;转载在本期参数,第63-68页。

2.外交理事会,非致命技术,军事选择和含义(纽约:外交关系委员会,1995年),p。8.

3.特殊功能:索马里和战争以外的行动,参数, Winter 1993-94.

4. If training doctrine, rules of engagement, and essential procedures are to be clear and precise, common terminology becomes essential. Consistency is perhaps more important than accuracy. The term "non-lethal" is technically inaccurate because virtually any item, even a baton or night stick, can be deadly if improperly employed. The term "less than lethal" implies that the system cannot be employed in a lethal manner. The term "limited effects technology" has also been used to describe the systems currently under development in the United States. The term "non-lethal" is currently used in the draft DOD instruction.

5. Report of the Council on Foreign Relations, p. 2.

6. See DOD INSTR: 5500.15 providing for the review of the legality of weapons. One system that failed to make the grade was a powerful sonic crowd control device that would have required a robot to maintain a safe distance between the sound source and friendly troops.

7.最终草案,国防部指令“非致命武器政策”,1996年4月16日。

8.可以在“联合盾牌行动中杀死的力量较低”中找到可用物品以及培训的更详细的描述,Marine Corps Gazette,1995年9月,第68-76页。

9.“当美军遭到未武装的敌对因素,暴民和/或暴徒攻击时,美军应在情况下使用必要的最低力量,并与威胁成比例。”JTF United Shield,《参与规则》,未分类的Roe卡Ser#1,1995年1月11日。

10.当前的国防部政策“禁止使用专门设计的激光器,以引起无效视力的失明。”该禁令大概不会扩展到使用激光来攻击敌人的针对性,记录或目击装置。国防部新闻稿,“盲目激光的政策”,1995年9月1日,可在DoD Internet网站DefenSelink上找到。


USMC F. M. Lorenz上校是1992年12月至1993年5月在索马里的参谋长倡导者兼高级法律顾问。1996年,他在萨拉热窝任职北约和平实施部队指挥官莱顿·史密斯(Leighton Smith)的法律人员。洛伦兹上校持有A.B.和马奎特大学(Marquette University)的J.D.学位,1982年,他在乔治华盛顿大学(George Washington University)完成了法律硕士学位。


审查了1996年8月21日。请发送评论或更正toddg@awc.carlisle.army.mil